Rare-earth orthovanadate nanoparticles trigger Ca<sup>2+</sup>-dependent eryptosis
Svetlana Yefimova, Anatolii Onishchenko, Vladimir Klochkov, Valeriy Myasoedov, Yurii Kot, Liliya Tryfonyuk, Oleksandr Knigavko, Pavel Maksimchuk, Umut Kökbaş, Yuliia M. Kalashnyk-Vakulenko, Андрій Аркатов, Vladyslav Khanzhyn, Volodymyr Prokopyuk, Iryna Vyshnytska, Anton Tkachenko
Abstract
Abstract Introduction . Rare-earth orthovanadate nanoparticles (ReVO 4 :Eu 3+ , Re = Gd, Y or La) are promising agents for photodynamic therapy of cancer due to their modifiable redox properties. However, their toxicity limits their application. Objective . The aim of this research was to elucidate pro-eryptotic effects of GdVO 4 :Eu 3+ and LaVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles with identification of underlying mechanisms of eryptosis induction and to determine their pharmacological potential in eryptosis-related diseases. Methods . Blood samples ( n = 9) were incubated for 24 h with 0–10–20–40–80 mg l −1 GdVO 4 :Eu 3+ or LaVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles, washed and used to prepare erythrocyte suspensions to analyze the cell membrane scrambling (annexin-V-FITC staining), cell shrinkage (forward scatter signaling), reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation through 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA) staining and intracellular Ca 2+ levels via FLUO4 AM staining by flow cytometry. Internalization of europium-enabled luminescent GdVO 4 :Eu 3+ and LaVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles was assessed by confocal laser scanning microscopy. Results. Both nanoparticles triggered eryptosis at concentrations of 80 mg l −1 . ROS-mediated mechanisms were not involved in rare-earth orthovanadate nanoparticles-induced eryptosis. Elevated cytosolic Ca 2+ concentrations were revealed even at subtoxic concentrations of nanoparticles. LaVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles increased intracellular calcium levels in a more pronounced way compared with GdVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles. Our data disclose that the small-sized (15 nm) GdVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles were internalized after a 24 h incubation, while the large-sized (∼30 nm) LaVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles were localized preferentially around erythrocytes. Conclusions. Both internalized GdVO 4 :Eu 3+ and non-internalized LaVO 4 :Eu 3+ nanoparticles (80 mg l −1 ) promote eryptosis of erythrocytes after a 24 h exposure in vitro via Ca 2+ signaling without involvement of oxidative stress. Eryptosis is a promising model for assessing nanotoxicity.