Copper ions: The invisible killer of cardiovascular disease (Review)
Yiming Wang, Lan-Shuan Feng, Ao Xu, Xiaohan Ma, Miao-Tiao Zhang, Jie Zhang
Abstract
Copper, a vital trace element, is indispensable for the maintenance of physiological functioning, particularly in the cardiac system.Unlike other forms of cell death such as iron death and apoptosis, copper-induced cell death has gained increasing recognition as a significant process influencing the development of cardiovascular diseases.The present review highlights the significance of maintaining copper homeostasis in addressing cardiovascular diseases.This review delves into the crucial roles of copper in physiology, including the metabolic pathways and its absorption, transport and excretion.It provides detailed insights into the mechanisms underlying cardiovascular diseases resulting from both excess and deficient copper levels.Additionally, it summarizes strategies for treating copper imbalances through approaches such as copper chelators and ion carriers while discussing their limitations and future prospects. Contents1. Introduction 2. Roles and metabolic pathways of copper 3. Copper ions: The 'killer' of cardiovascular disease 4. Therapeutic approaches to address copper ion metabolism abnormalities and the associated cardiovascular diseases 5. Effects of Cu/Zn and Fe on cardiovascular diseases 6. Conclusions and future prospects