Physical Exercise and the Hallmarks of Breast Cancer: A Narrative Review
Celia García‐Chico, Susana López‐Ortiz, Saúl Peñín‐Grandes, José Pinto-Fraga, Pedro L. Valenzuela, Enzo Emanuele, Claudia Ceci, Grazia Graziani, Carmen Fiuza‐Luces, Simone Lista, Alejandro Lucía, Alejandro Santos‐Lozano
Abstract
Growing evidence suggests that, among the different molecular/cellular pathophysiological mechanisms associated with cancer, there are 14 hallmarks that play a major role, including: (i) sustaining proliferative signaling, (ii) evading growth suppressors, (iii) activating invasion and metastasis, (iv) enabling replicative immortality, (v) inducing angiogenesis, (vi) resisting cell death, (vii) reprogramming energy metabolism, (viii) evading immune destruction, (ix) genome instability and mutations, (x) tumor-promoting inflammation, (xi) unlocking phenotypic plasticity, (xii) nonmutational epigenetic reprogramming, (xiii) polymorphic microbiomes, and (xiv) senescent cells. These hallmarks are also associated with the development of breast cancer, which represents the most prevalent tumor type in the world. The present narrative review aims to describe, for the first time, the effects of physical activity/exercise on these hallmarks. In summary, an active lifestyle, and particularly regular physical exercise, provides beneficial effects on all major hallmarks associated with breast cancer, and might therefore help to counteract the progression of the disease or its associated burden.