Functional Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Regeneration: A Comprehensive Review of Materials, Methods, and Future Directions
Emily Ann Todd, Nicholas A. Mirsky, Bruno Luís Graciliano Silva, Ankita Raja Shinde, Aris R. L. Arakelians, Vasudev Vivekanand Nayak, Rosemary Adriana Chiérici Marcantonio, Nïkhil Gupta, Lukasz Witek, Paulo G. Coelho
Abstract
Bone tissue regeneration is a rapidly evolving field aimed at the development of biocompatible materials and devices, such as scaffolds, to treat diseased and damaged osseous tissue. Functional scaffolds maintain structural integrity and provide mechanical support at the defect site during the healing process, while simultaneously enabling or improving regeneration through amplified cellular cues between the scaffold and native tissues. Ample research on functionalization has been conducted to improve scaffold-host tissue interaction, including fabrication techniques, biomaterial selection, scaffold surface modifications, integration of bioactive molecular additives, and post-processing modifications. Each of these methods plays a crucial role in enabling scaffolds to not only support but actively participate in the healing and regeneration process in bone and joint surgery. This review provides a state-of-the-art, comprehensive overview of the functionalization of scaffold-based strategies used in tissue engineering, specifically for bone regeneration. Critical issues and obstacles are highlighted, applications and advances are described, and future directions are identified.