Traffic-related Air Pollution and Lung Cancer Incidence: The California Multiethnic Cohort Study
Iona Cheng, Juan Yang, Chiu-Chen Tseng, Jun Wu, Salma Shariff‐Marco, Sungshim Lani Park, Shannon M. Conroy, Pushkar P. Inamdar, Scott Fruin, Timothy V. Larson, Veronica Wendy Setiawan, Mindy C. DeRouen, Scarlett Lin Gomez, Lynne R. Wilkens, Loı̈c Le Marchand, Daniel O. Stram, Jonathan M. Samet, Beate Ritz, Anna H. Wu
Abstract
Abstract Rationale Although the contribution of air pollution to lung cancer risk is well characterized, few studies have been conducted in racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse populations. Objectives To examine the association between traffic-related air pollution and risk of lung cancer in a racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse cohort. Methods Among 97,288 California participants of the Multiethnic Cohort Study, we used Cox proportional hazards regression to examine associations between time-varying traffic-related air pollutants (gaseous and particulate matter pollutants and regional benzene) and lung cancer risk (n = 2,796 cases; average follow-up = 17 yr), adjusting for demographics, lifetime smoking, occupation, neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES), and lifestyle factors. Subgroup analyses were conducted for race, ethnicity, nSES, and other factors. Measurements and Main Results Among all participants, lung cancer risk was positively associated with nitrogen oxide (hazard ratio [HR], 1.15 per 50 ppb; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.99–1.33), nitrogen dioxide (HR, 1.12 per 20 ppb; 95% CI, 0.95–1.32), fine particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm (HR, 1.20 per 10 μg/m3; 95% CI, 1.01–1.43), carbon monoxide (HR, 1.29 per 1,000 ppb; 95% CI, 0.99–1.67), and regional benzene (HR, 1.17 per 1 ppb; 95% CI, 1.02–1.34) exposures. These patterns of associations were driven by associations among African American and Latino American groups. There was no formal evidence for heterogeneity of effects by nSES (P heterogeneity > 0.21), although participants residing in low-SES neighborhoods had increased lung cancer risk associated with nitrogen oxides, and no association was observed among those in high-SES neighborhoods. Conclusions These findings in a large multiethnic population reflect an association between lung cancer and the mixture of traffic-related air pollution and not a particular individual pollutant. They are consistent with the adverse effects of air pollution that have been described in less racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse populations. Our results also suggest an increased risk of lung cancer among those residing in low-SES neighborhoods.