Towards a European sustainable beneficiation of rare earth elements bearing minerals: a review
Niroshan Gajendra, Duygu Yilmaz, Maria Cristina Vila, Maria de Lurdes Dinis, Erika Andrea Levei, Anamaria Iulia Török, Deniz Avsar, Anastasios Kladis, Athina Preveniou, Anne Merrild Hansen, Sara Bjørn Aaen, Laura Ferrando‐Climent
Abstract
This review explores the multifaceted aspects of sustainable extraction of rare earth elements (REEs) bearing minerals within Europe, stressing the exploitation of local deposits, that together with the integration of cleaner and greener approaches (including circular economy approaches) might help to reduce dependency on imports and contribute to a greener economy. The mineralogical characteristics and distribution of REEs in European deposits are examined, alongside current and emerging beneficiation techniques aimed at enhancing extraction efficiency and sustainability. Key challenges, such as the mineral extraction complexities (technological and economic limitations), radiochemical and environmental impacts, as well as social acceptance, are critically assessed. Innovative and new approaches that aim to be applied to mainly primary sources (mineral deposits) but also secondary sources (secondary raw materials) are presented and suggested for a sustainable mineral extraction. Finally, Europe's over-dependence on foreign countries and prospects for the mineral extraction of REEs are discussed, outlining a strategic roadmap for achieving sustainable and economically viable extraction practices in Europe. This comprehensive and holistic analysis stresses the importance of an integrated approach that combines developing unexploited mineral resources within Europe, boosting recycling initiatives, technological innovation, implementing environmental standards and community engagement to foster a sustainable REE supply chain within Europe. • 13 European deposits have REE resource estimates but no active mining. • A secure supply chain requires more REE processing and recycling infrastructure. • Social acceptance and economic feasibility needed for sustainable mining in Europe. • Upgrades in beneficiation are shown but with environmental and economic drawbacks. • A more standardized normative for radioactive waste management is required.