Interactions of Gram-Positive Bacterial Membrane Vesicles and Hosts: Updates and Future Directions
Giuseppe Sangiorgio, Emanuele Nicitra, Dalida Bivona, Carmelo Bonomo, Paolo Giuseppe Bonacci, Maria Santagati, Nicolò Musso, Dafne Bongiorno, Stefania Stefani
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayers derived from cell membranes, released by both eukaryotic cells and bacteria into the extracellular environment. During production, EVs carry proteins, nucleic acids, and various compounds, which are then released. While Gram-positive bacteria were traditionally thought incapable of producing EVs due to their thick peptidoglycan cell walls, recent studies on membrane vesicles (MVs) in Gram-positive bacteria have revealed their significant role in bacterial physiology and disease progression. This review explores the current understanding of MVs in Gram-positive bacteria, including the characterization of their content and functions, as well as their interactions with host and bacterial cells. It offers a fresh perspective to enhance our comprehension of Gram-positive bacterial EVs.