Integration of 3D Fluorescence Imaging and Luminescent Thermometry with Core–Shell Engineered NaYF₄:Nd³⁺/Yb³⁺/Ho³⁺ Nanoparticles

Abstract

The design of rare-earth-doped upconversion/downshifting nanoparticles (NPs) for theoretical use in nanomedicine has garnered considerable interest. Previous research has emphasized luminescent nanothermometry and photothermal therapy, while three-dimensional (3D) near-infrared (NIR) luminescent tracers have received less attention. Our study introduces Nd 3+ -, Yb 3+ -, and Ho 3+ -doped NaYF 4 core–shell luminescent NPs as potential multiparametric nanothermometers and NIR imaging tracers. Nd 3+ sensitizes at 804 nm, while Yb 3+ bridges to activators Ho 3+ . We evaluated the photoluminescence properties of Nd 3+ -, Yb 3+ -, and Ho 3+ -doped core and core–shell NPs synthesized via polyol-mediated and thermal decomposition methods. The NaYF 4:NdYbHo(7/15/3%)@NaYF 4:Nd(15%) core–shell NPs demonstrate competitive nanothermometry capabilities. Specifically, the polyol-synthesized sample exhibits a sensitivity of 0.27% K –1 at 313 K (40 °C), whereas the thermally decomposed synthesized sample shows a significantly higher sensitivity of 0.55% K –1 at 313 K (40 °C) in the near-infrared range. Control samples indicate back energy transfer processes from both Yb and Ho to Nd, while Yb to Ho energy transfer enhances Ho 3+ -driven upconversion transitions in green and red wavelengths, suggesting promise for photodynamic therapy. Fluorescence molecular tomography confirms 3D NIR fluorescence nanoparticle localization in a biological media after injection, highlighting the potential of core–shell NPs as NIR luminescent tracers. The strategy’s clinical impact lies in photothermal treatment planning, leveraging core–shell NPs for (pre)clinical applications, and enabling the easy addition of new functionalities through distinct ion doping.

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