Parabens transformation products in water and their (eco)toxicological implications

Abstract

• Parabens in WWTP lead to the formation of DBP during water disinfection. • DBP from parabens can include chlorinated, brominated, and hydroxylated parabens. • Parabens transformation products are found in WWTP, rivers, swimming pools, and DW. • Biofilms in DWDS and the type of water disinfection affect DBP production. • Parabens transformation products are more toxic than the parent parabens. Parabens are used as preservatives in personal care products and many other products of daily use. Their removal in wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) is inefficient, allowing their spread into the environment. A great diversity of biological and chemical transformations occurs in these water systems leading to the formation of parabens transformation products (PTP). The presence and persistence of PTP in water sources are primarily affected by the type of tertiary wastewater treatment employed and the extent to which paraben-containing products are used. Despite laboratory evidence of PTP formation, their detection in real-world water systems remains limited. Few reports described their presence in real WWTP, rivers, swimming pools, and even drinking water (DW), occasionally at concentrations surpassing their parent counterparts. Among them, para -hydroxybenzoic acid (PHBA) is the most frequently detected, reaching concentrations up to 200 μg/L in WWTP influents, followed by hydroxylated parabens (1 μg/L), as well as chlorinated and brominated parabens (<0.1 μg/L). The toxicological implications of these PTP raise concerns, considering the health risks associated with parabens such as their potential endocrine disruption and toxicity. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of PTP formation during water treatment processes and its prevalence in water sources in real and laboratory conditions. Their environmental and public health impacts are also addressed, highlighting the need to invest in the monitoring of PTP in water systems using integrated water management approaches and promote community education to reduce the use of these compounds, safeguarding environmental and human health.

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