Frustration in horses: Investigating expert opinion on behavioural indicators and causes using a delphi consultation

Abstract

Frustration is a term often used to describe both a behavioural response to a situation and an emotional state experienced when goals or rewards are expected but not received. Literature on human and non-human animals provides an understanding into the mechanisms underlying frustration and the common behaviours expressed. Frustration is regarded as a negative affective state that could indicate a welfare concern. However, literature on horses lacks consistency regarding those behaviours believed to indicate frustration. The purpose of the current study was to ascertain expert opinion on the causes and behavioural indicators of frustration in horses via a Delphi Consultation process with 30 experts in the field of equine behaviour. Twenty-six statements were generated by experts in a two-round Delphi to describe potential causes of frustration, behavioural indicators of acute and chronic frustration and to enhance general understanding of the topic. The statements generated were agreed upon by > 70 % of participants. Mean level of agreement within demographic variables (researcher status (active or inactive), consultant status (active or inactive) and qualification level (<PhD or PhD holder) was analysed using Welch’s t-Test with no significant difference seen between any of the variables (t(21.55) = 1.11, p > 0.05; t(14.47) = −1.22, p > 0.05; t(15.31) = 2.10, p > 0.05 respectively). Consensus agreement suggests that horses are likely to exhibit frustration in similar ways to other species - in acute situations through increased locomotion, muscle tension, directed and redirected aggression, conflict or displacement behaviours; in chronic situations through the development of repetitive (stereotypic) behaviours and learned helplessness or shutdown behaviours. It was also suggested that certain management practices and human interactions are likely causes of most frustration-related behaviours. The majority of participants (85.7 %) agreed that frustration may present with similar behaviours to those generated by other affective states, indicating the need for caution when attributing the cause of observed behaviours solely to frustration. The study highlights the need for further exploration and empirical studies to validate behavioural indicators of frustration and to clarify differentiation of them from other affective states.

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