Bacterial Adaptation to Venom in Snakes and Arachnida
Elham Esmaeilishirazifard, Louise Usher, Carol M. Trim, Hubert Denise, Vartul Sangal, Gregory H. Tyson, Axel Barlow, K. Redway, John D. Taylor, Myrto Kremyda-Vlachou, Sam Davies, Teresa D. Loftus, M.M.G. Lock, K. Wright, Andrew Dalby, Lori A.S. Snyder, Wolfgang Wüster, S. Trim, Sterghios Moschos
Abstract
Notwithstanding their 3 to 5% mortality, the 2.7 million envenomation-related injuries occurring annually-predominantly across Africa, Asia, and Latin America-are also major causes of morbidity. Venom toxin-damaged tissue will develop infections in some 75% of envenomation victims, with E. faecalis being a common culprit of disease; however, such infections are generally considered to be independent of envenomation. Here, we provide evidence on venom microbiota across snakes and arachnida and report on the convergent evolution mechanisms that can facilitate adaptation to black-necked cobra venom in two independent E. faecalis strains, easily misidentified by biochemical diagnostics. Therefore, since inoculation with viable and virulence gene-harboring bacteria can occur during envenomation, acute infection risk management following envenomation is warranted, particularly for immunocompromised and malnourished victims in resource-limited settings. These results shed light on how bacteria evolve for survival in one of the most extreme environments on Earth and how venomous bites must be also treated for infections.