Sex, Racial, and Ethnic Disparities in Acute Coronary Syndrome: Novel Risk Factors and Recommendations for Earlier Diagnosis to Improve Outcomes
Haitham Khraishah, Ralph Daher, Mahdi Garelnabi, Genesio M. Karere, Francine K. Welty
Abstract
In this review, sex, racial, and ethnic differences in acute coronary syndromes on a global scale are summarized. The relationship between disparities in presentation and management of acute coronary syndromes and effect on worse clinical outcomes in acute coronary syndromes are discussed. The effect of demographic, geographic, racial, and ethnic factors on acute coronary syndrome care disparities are reviewed. Differences in risk factors including systemic inflammatory disorders and pregnancy-related factors and the pathophysiology underlying them are discussed. Finally, breast arterial calcification and coronary calcium scoring are discussed as methods to detect subclinical atherosclerosis and start early treatment in an attempt to prevent clinical disease.