Oxidative Stress in Cerebral Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury
Roberto Anaya-Fernández, Roberto Anaya‐Prado, Michelle Marie Anaya-Fernandez, Miguel A. Guerrero-Palomera, Ivan F Garcia-Ramirez, Daniel Gonzalez-Martinez, Consuelo C. Azcona-Ramirez, Citlalli S. Guerrero-Palomera, Claudia Garcia-Perez, Bernardo Tenorio-Gonzalez, Jose E. Tenorio-Gonzalez, Laisha F. Vargas-Ascencio, Abraham I. Canseco-Villegas, Gustavo Servin-Romero, Allen R. Barragan-Arias, Bruno Reyna-Rodriguez
Abstract
Oxidative stress in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury (CIRI) involves reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS). Despite efficient antioxidant pathways in the brain, hypoxia triggers the production of oxygen free radicals and downregulates ATP, which leads to oxidative stress. Sources of free radicals during CIRI include Ca<sup>2+</sup>-dependent enzymes, phospholipid degradation and mitochondrial enlargement. Upon reperfusion, the abrupt increase of oxygen triggers a massive radical production via enzymes like xantin oxidase (XO), phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and oxide synthases (OS). These enzymes play an essential role in neuronal damage by excitotoxicity, lipoperoxidation, nitrosylation, inflammation and programmed cell death (PCD). Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) decreases as compared to neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). This is associated with neuronal damage, endothelial inflammation, apoptosis and oxidative stress. Strategies promoting activation of eNOS while inhibiting nNOS could offer neuroprotective benefits in CIRI. Understanding and targeting these pathways could mitigate brain damage in ischemia/reperfusion events. Clinically, tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) has been shown to restore cerebral blood flow. However, serious side effects have been described, including hemorrhagic transformation. Different treatments are currently under investigation to avoid I/R injury. Baicalin has been reported as a potential agent that could improve t-PA adverse effects, which have to do with peroxynitrite synthesis and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression. In this review, CIRI and interventions in oxidative stress are addressed. Special attention is paid to efficient antioxidant mechanisms in the brain and the production of free radicals, especially nNOS-derived nitric oxide (NO). The primary purpose is to describe accessible radical pathways with the activity of Ca<sup>2+</sup>-dependent oxidative enzymes, leading to membrane phospholipids and mitochondrial breakdown.