Household concentrations and female and child exposures to air pollution in peri-urban sub-Saharan Africa: measurements from the CLEAN-Air(Africa) study
Matthew Shupler, Theresa Tawiah, Emily Nix, Miranda Baame, Federico Lorenzetti, Emmanuel Betang, Ryan Chartier, Judith Mangeni, Adithi R. Upadhya, Rachel Anderson de Cuevas, Edna Sang, Ricardo Piedrahita, Michael Johnson, Daniel Wilson, Seeba Amenga‐Etego, Mieks Twumasi, Sara Ronzi, Diana Menya, Elisa Puzzolo, Reginald Quansah, Kwaku Poku Asante, Daniel Pope, Bertrand Hugo Mbatchou Ngahane
Abstract
Background Relatively clean cooking fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) emit less fine particulate matter (PM 2·5 ) and carbon monoxide (CO) than polluting fuels (eg, wood, charcoal). Yet, some clean cooking interventions have not achieved substantial exposure reductions. This study evaluates determinants of between-community variability in exposures to household air pollution (HAP) across sub-Saharan Africa. Methods In this measurement study, we recruited households cooking primarily with LPG or exclusively with wood or charcoal in peri-urban Cameroon, Ghana, and Kenya from previously surveyed households. In 2019–20, we conducted monitoring of 24 h PM 2·5 and CO kitchen concentrations (n=256) and female cook (n=248) and child (n=124) exposures. PM 2·5 measurements used gravimetric and light scattering methods. Stove use monitoring and surveys on cooking characteristics and ambient air pollution exposure (eg, walking time to main road) were also administered. Findings The mean PM 2·5 kitchen concentration was five times higher among households cooking with charcoal than those using LPG in the Kenyan community (297 μg/m 3 , 95% CI 216–406, vs 61 μg/m 3 , 49–76), but only 4 μg/m 3 higher in the Ghanaian community (56 μg/m 3 , 45–70, vs 52 μg/m 3 , 40–68). The mean CO kitchen concentration in charcoal-using households was double the WHO guideline (6·11 parts per million [ppm]) in the Kenyan community (15·81 ppm, 95% CI 8·71–28·72), but below the guideline in the Ghanaian setting (1·77 ppm, 1·04–2·99). In all communities, mean PM 2·5 cook exposures only met the WHO interim-1 target (35 μg/m 3 ) among LPG users staying indoors and living more than 10 min walk from a road. Interpretation Community-level variation in the relative difference in HAP exposures between LPG and polluting cooking fuel users in peri-urban sub-Saharan Africa might be attributed to differences in ambient air pollution levels. Thus, mitigation of indoor and outdoor PM 2·5 sources will probably be critical for obtaining significant exposure reductions in rapidly urbanising settings of sub-Saharan Africa. Funding UK National Institute for Health and Care Research.