Revealing Nonlinear Relationships and Thresholds of Human Activities and Climate Change on Ecosystem Services in Anhui Province Based on the XGBoost–SHAP Model
Lei Zhang, Xinmu Zhang, Shengwei Gao, Xinchen Gu
Abstract
Under the combined influence of global climate change and intensified human activities, ecosystem services (ESs) are undergoing substantial transformations. Identifying their nonlinear driving mechanisms is crucial for promoting regional sustainable development. Taking Anhui Province as a case study, this research evaluates the spatial patterns and temporal dynamics of six key ecosystem services from 2000 to 2020—namely, biodiversity maintenance (BM), carbon fixation (CF), crop production (CP), net primary productivity (NPP), soil retention (SR), and water yield (WY). The InVEST and CASA models were employed to quantify service values, and the XGBoost–SHAP framework was used to reveal the nonlinear response paths and threshold effects of dominant drivers. Results show a distinct “high in the south, low in the north” spatial gradient of ES across Anhui. Regulatory services such as BM, NPP, and WY are concentrated in the southern mountainous areas (high-value zones > 0.7), while CP is prominent in the northern and central agricultural zones (>0.8), indicating a clear spatial complementarity of service types. Over the two-decade period, areas with significant increases in NPP and CP accounted for 50% and 64%, respectively, suggesting notable achievements in ecological restoration and agricultural modernization. CF remained stable across 98.3% of the region, while SR and WY exhibited strong sensitivity to topography and precipitation. Temporal trend analysis indicated that NPP rose from 395.83 in 2000 to 537.59 in 2020; SR increased from 150.02 to 243.28; and CP rose from 203.18 to 283.78, reflecting an overall enhancement in ecosystem productivity and regulatory functions. Driver analysis identified precipitation (PRE) as the most influential factor for most services, while elevation (DEM) was particularly important for CF and NPP. Temperature (TEM) and potential evapotranspiration (PET) affected biomass formation and hydrothermal balance. SHAP analysis revealed key threshold effects, such as the peak positive contribution of PRE to NPP occurring near 1247 mm, and the optimal temperature for BM at approximately 15.5 °C. The human footprint index (HFI) exerted negative impacts on both BM and NPP, highlighting the suppressive effect of intensive anthropogenic disturbances on ecosystem functioning. Anhui’s ES exhibit a trend of multifunctional synergy, governed by the nonlinear coupling of climatic, hydrological, topographic, and anthropogenic drivers. This study provides both a modeling toolkit and quantitative evidence to support ecosystem restoration and service optimization in similar transitional regions.