Occurrence, Sources, and Prioritization of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Drinking Water from Yangtze River Delta, China: Focusing on Emerging PFASs
Zixin Qian, Chao Feng, Yuhang Chen, Yuanjie Lin, Ziwei Liang, Hailei Qian, Jingxian Zhou, Jingsheng Ma, Yue Jin, Dasheng Lu, Guoquan Wang, Ping Xiao, Zhijun Zhou
Abstract
As regulations ban legacy PFASs, many emerging PFASs are being developed, leading to their release into the aquatic environment and drinking water. However, research studies on these emerging PFASs in drinking water are limited, and current standards only cover a few legacy PFASs, leaving many emerging PFASs unregulated and their toxicity unknown. Therefore, a machine learning-based suspect screening combined with target screening was employed to comprehensively identify and quantify both legacy and novel PFASs in drinking water from the Yangtze River Delta, and their potential sources of contamination were determined through pollutant profile analysis. A total of 30 PFASs were identified, including 16 legacy and 14 novel PFASs, categorized into 11 classes. Quantitative and semi-quantitative analyses revealed that the maximum concentrations of 30 PFASs ranged from <LOQ (limit of quantification) to 48.92 ng/L. Notably, PFPeA (48.92 ng/L), perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA, 44.83 ng/L), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, 37.72 ng/L), perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS, 26.77 ng/L), and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (HNTf2, 15.02 ng/L) exhibited higher concentrations compared to other PFASs. The pollutant profile analysis suggested that PFASs in the Yangtze River Delta's drinking water are more likely to originate from pollution in the upper and middle reaches of the Yangtze River rather than from local industrial emissions. Then, the identified PFASs were prioritized by integrating the PBT (persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity) properties of PFASs with environmental exposure data. In the prioritization and risk assessment process, ten high-concern PFASs had Risk Indexes (RIs) higher than those of ref-PFOA and ref-PFOS, including eight legacy PFASs and two novel PFASs. The drinking water of the Yangtze River Delta originates from the surface water of the lower Yangtze River, which accumulates pollutants from its upper and middle reaches, affecting the health of over 20 million people. Our findings indicated the presence of emerging PFASs in the region's drinking water and demonstrated conceptual models for integrating chemical information from suspect screening with toxicity prediction and risk assessment. Although the current levels of emerging PFASs are relatively low, legacy PFASs still dominate. Further research is needed to identify, monitor, and assess the health and environmental risks of emerging PFASs.