Inflammation demystified: An in-depth comprehensive review
Noor Ghazi M. Jameel, Amrita Dwivedi, Mohammad Khushtar, Md. Faheem Haider, Md Nematullah, Md. Azizur Rahman
Abstract
The immune system responds to viral pathogens, damaged cells, and diverse irritants through a complex, highly regulated biochemical cascade known as inflammation. When dysregulated, inflammation becomes a hallmark of numerous chronic disorders, including autoimmune diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases. Physiologically, this defence mechanism eliminates damaged cells, neutralises the primary injurious stimulus, and initiates tissue-repair pathways. The objective of the present review is to synthesise contemporary evidence regarding inflammation and its associated pathologies. A comprehensive literature search was conducted across peer-reviewed journals, textbooks, and electronic databases—including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar—to collate relevant data. Current information on inflammation and anti-inflammatory pharmacotherapies has been assembled. The roles of immune cells and signalling molecules (e.g., cytokines and chemokines) in precipitating inflammatory responses are critically examined. Moreover, we describe the molecular mechanisms underlying chronic inflammation, its contribution to disease pathogenesis, emerging therapeutic strategies, novel inflammatory targets, and conventional treatment with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The review also underscores the promise of precision and personalised medicine in optimising anti-inflammatory interventions. Collectively, this synthesis is intended to assist researchers and clinicians in advancing anti-inflammatory drug development and improving clinical outcomes in inflammation-related diseases.