Kilogram‐Scale Synthesis of Extremely Small Gadolinium Oxide Nanoparticles as a <i>T</i><sub>1</sub>‐Weighted Contrast Agent for Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Lihe Wu, Xuanyi Lu, Yudie Lu, Meng Shi, Shuai Guo, Jie Feng, Su‐Geun Yang, Wei Xiong, Yikai Xu, Chenggong Yan, Zheyu Shen
Abstract
Abstract Magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents are frequently used in clinics to enhance the contrast between diseased and normal tissues. The previously reported poly(acrylic acid) stabilized exceedingly small gadolinium oxide nanoparticles (ES‐GdON‐PAA) overcame the problems of commercial Gd chelates, but limitations still exist, i.e., high r 2 / r 1 ratio, long blood circulation half‐life, and no data for large scale synthesis and formulation optimization. In this study, polymaleic acid (PMA) is found to be an ideal stabilizer to synthesize ES‐GdONs. Compared with ES‐GdON‐PAA, the PMA‐stabilized ES‐GdON (ES‐GdON‐PMA) has a lower r 2 / r 1 ratio (2.05, 7.0 T) and a lower blood circulation half‐life (37.51 min). The optimized ES‐GdON‐PMA‐9 has an exceedingly small particle size (2.1 nm), excellent water dispersibility, and stability. A facile, efficient, and environmental friendly synthetic method is developed for large‐scale synthesis of the ES‐GdONs‐PMA. The weight of the optimized freeze–dried ES‐GdON‐PMA‐26 synthesized in a 20 L of reactor reaches the kilogram level. The formulation optimization is also finished, and the concentrated ES‐GdON‐PMA‐26 formulation ( C Gd = 100 m m ) after high‐pressure steam sterilization possesses eligible physicochemical properties (i.e., pH value, osmolality, viscosity, and density) for investigational new drug application.