Fungal effectors: past, present, and future

Abstract

Fungal effector proteins function at the interfaces of diverse interactions between fungi and their plant and animal hosts, facilitating interactions that are pathogenic or mutualistic. Recent advancements in protein structure prediction have significantly accelerated the identification and functional predictions of these rapidly evolving effector proteins. This development enables scientists to generate testable hypotheses for functional validation using experimental approaches. Research frontiers in effector biology include understanding pathways through which effector proteins are secreted or translocated into host cells, their roles in manipulating host microbiomes, and their contribution to interacting with host immunity. Comparative effector repertoires among different fungal–host interactions can highlight unique adaptations, providing insights for the development of novel antifungal therapies and biocontrol strategies. • Fungi can be symbionts and pathogens of both plant and animal hosts. • Fungal effectors are key players involved in all host–fungal interactions. • Apoplastic or cytoplasmic effectors function outside or inside host cells, respectively. • Tools continue to be developed to predict effector functions and localizations. • Challenges remain in defining effectors involved in host-specific interactions.

Topics & Concepts