Internet of things‐enabled photomultiplier tube‐ and smartphone‐based electrochemiluminescence platform to detect choline and dopamine using 3D‐printed closed bipolar electrodes
Manish Bhaiyya, Madhusudan B. Kulkarni, Prasant Kumar Pattnaik, Sanket Goel
Abstract
Abstract There is a growing demand to realize low‐cost miniaturized point‐of‐care testing diagnostic devices capable of performing many analytical assays. To fabricate such devices, three‐dimensional printing (3DP)‐based fabrication techniques provide a turnkey approach with marked precision and accuracy. Here, a 3DP fabrication technique was successfully utilized to fabricate closed bipolar electrode‐based electrochemiluminescence (ECL) devices using conductive graphene filament. Furthermore, using these ECL devices, Ru(bpy) 3 2+ /TPrA‐ and luminol/H 2 O 2 ‐based electrochemistry was leveraged to sense dopamine and choline respectively. For ECL signal capture, two distinct approaches were used, first a smartphone‐based miniaturized platform and the second with a photomultiplier tube embedded with the internet of things technology. Choline sensing led to a linear range 5–700 μM and 30–700 μM with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.25 μM (R 2 = 0.98, N = 3) and 3.27 μM (R 2 = 0.97, N = 3). Furthermore, dopamine sensing was achieved in a linear range 0.5–100 μM with an LOD = 2 μM (R 2 = 0.99, N = 3) and LOD = 0.33 μM (R 2 = 0.98, N = 3). Overall, the fabricated devices have the potential to be utilized effectively in real‐time applications such as point‐of‐care testing.