Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors for the Detection of Pharmaceutical Contaminants in Natural Waters—A Comprehensive Review
Alexandra Virginia Bounegru, Ancuța Dinu, Cătalina Iticescu, L. Georgescu
Abstract
This review highlights recent advances in the development of electrochemical sensors and biosensors for detecting pharmaceutical contaminants in water samples, including surface water, wastewater, and bottled water. The electrode modification materials—such as nanomaterials, conductive polymers, and eco-friendly nanocomposites—have shown notable improvements in sensor sensitivity and selectivity, enabling the detection of various pharmaceutical compounds, including diclofenac, ibuprofen, antibiotics, and hormones. Future research directions suggest the use of eco-friendly nanocomposites, the development of multiplexed platforms for simultaneous contaminant detection, and the integration of sensors into portable devices for in situ monitoring. Additionally, integrating biosensors with specific biomolecules and IoT technology can expand their applicability, enabling continuous and efficient water quality monitoring, thus supporting public health and environmental protection.